The role of student effort on performance in PISA: revisiting the gender gap in achievement

Abstract International assessments are important to benchmark the quality of education internationally. However, ignoring students’ efforts in low-stakes tests can lead biased interpretations test performance. We use data from PISA analyse potential role student effort explaining gender achievement gaps across countries. build two measures based on response times questions (i.e. rapid-guessing rates) and post-test survey item non-response rates). find a strong association between scores. After accounting for differences effort, estimated gap mathematics science could be up 36% 40% an standard deviation wider, respectively, favour boys. Altogether, our average explain 51% 56% cross-country variation